Problems Of Architecture And Design

Problems Of Architecture And Design Software architecture and design is the main phase of software development life cycle. There are various important challenges that are associated with this phase. During our research on evaluating various software architecture design approaches, we identified many issues that are related with existing approaches like software requirements specification, software design methods its architectural styles, software processes and different constraints and associated policies. Present methods fulfills the demand of small and large scale software products but still there are some problems that we need to focus more about. In this paper we highlight these problems through survey method and also present some ideas and methods about their improvement. Key Terms: SDLC (Software development life cycle), UML (Unified modeling language), SDM (Software development methodology), CASE (Computer Aided Software Engineering) Introduction Architecture is concerned with the selection of architectural elements, their interactions, and the constraints on those elements. Interaction is necessary to provide a framework in which to satisfy the requirements and serve as a basis for the design. As in figure 1, we can see that Architecture={elements,interactions,constraints} Figure 1: Software architecture design as a bridge Design is concerned with the modularization and detailed interfaces of the design elements, their algorithms and procedures, and the data types needed to support the architecture and to satisfy the requirements. Design={elements,algorithms, procedures, datatypes} Figure 2: Outline of architectural design approach The next part of this paper is section II which will describe what software architecture design is all about. Section III of this document will describe the current challenges of software architecture and design. In section IV we will describe our survey research results. Section V will describe our proposed solution by identifying existing problems in software architecture design. Section VI will summarize the main recommendation for future research on software architecture design improvements. Literature Review The design architecture of software system has primary importance in software engineering research. Design is an activity which is engaged by a wide range of stake holders, used throughout of SDLC phases, provides set of key choices for applications architecture. Richard N. Taylor in his research The once and future focus of software engineering shows why design is a principal focus. His direction for design research includes: (a) Various drawing techniques (b) Design of application functionality, style architecture (c) Expand the software design to add different intangible software artifacts. A good architecture ensures that system will satisfy key requirements e.g. reliability, efficiency, quality, performance, scalability, portability, and interoperability. A bad architecture leads towards complex problems e.g. system crash. David Garlan in his research Software Architecture: a Roadmap defines that change in technology raises a number of new challenges for software design architecture. This paper presents some of the important trends challenges of software architecture in research. Architecture contains set of interacted components. Architectural description includes sufficient information to do high-level analysis of system. It plays a role as a bridge between requirements and implementation. Software architecture has important role in six aspects of software development: Understandability, reuse, construction, evolution, analysis management. Design style also plays an important role in real-time software development. For real-time software applications using more sophisticated methodologies is critical to ensure the fulfillment of safety requirements. Manas Saksena in his research Real-Time Software Design State of the Art and Future Challenges presents a high-level overview of real-time software architecture design. His focus is on standard techniques for dealing with the critical issues of concurrency and timeliness along with using automated tools. Different design styles for constructing real-time software principal technological trends currently emerging in the field are described. For large scale software systems development, different security challenges are associated. Bhavani Thuraisingham Kevin W. Hamlen in his paper Challenges and Future Directions of Software Technology: Secure Software Development describes different aspects of secure software development like security policy de ¬Ã‚ nition, formal modeling, developing security architecture and software models, testing veri ¬Ã‚ cation and validation and evaluation. By developing using new software architectures including service oriented architectures and object oriented systems for various computing. This paper describes two security challenges that need to be considered in building evolvable and  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡exible secure systems: (a) Applying formal methods (b) Secure services modeling of systems. Data-driven design techniques are important mechanisms to manage complexity in systems. Important design ideas should not be ignored. Rebecca J and Wirfs-Brock in Designing in the Future presents their idea that Up-front thinking is rarely wasted effort, especially when tackling complex or novel design problems. Proposed different aspects: Focusing on the Details Thinking and planning add value The Design Value of Well-structured requirements The poorly defined requirements have bad effect on overall design architecture. Designers should design the problems in well-formed manner to bring clarity in design. Sometime by using simple, comprehensive solutions is not suitable. Messy problems leads towards poor design architecture small elements dont always collectively add up values to design abstractions. It needs to use better techniques for understanding and structuring problems as well as design solutions. Challenges of Architecture Design Phase Here we describe some important phases of SDLC in detail along with the existing processes then highlighted some problems related to these processes. 3.1. Requirements Elicitation It is about collecting the requirements of a system from users, customers and other stakeholders. Requirements elicitation processes include interviews, questionnaires, user observation, workshops, brain storming, use cases, role playing and prototyping. Problems: Some of the problems are related to: Defining the system objectives scope Understanding among stakeholders affected by the system development Volatile nature of requirements 3.2. Design Methodologies Structured methods of software design are sets of guidelines. It supports different type of models like: A structural model Data-flow model An object-oriented model An ER model Problems: Some of the issues related to software design are: Reliability Quality Complexity Conformity Changeability Invisibility 3.3. Tools/Technologies Different types of software design tools are available in market for use. Commercial tools are: Rational Rose (IBM) Together Designer (Borland) Rhapsody (I-Logix) Poseidon (Gentleware) Free Tools: UMLet EclipseUML Visual Paradigm Open source Tools: ArgoUML (Tigris) StarUML (Sourceforge) Problems: Some other problems in CASE technologies are: Usability, Complexity. Need creative skills Integrations between teams 3.4. Software Development Process methodologies It contains structured set of activities required to develop a software system. Different software process models are used: Waterfall model Evolutionary model Iterative/Incremental model Spiral model Agile software Development Agile unified process Design driven Development Dynamic systems development method Extreme programming Rational unified process Scrum Test driven development Unified process Problems: Applying the wrong process for software product Use less code by generating code using automated tools 3.5. Design Processes Some important processes related to design are: Design system flow Develop data model Create physical data model Design screens Data entry screens Inquiry screens Help screens Design reports Design Patterns Conduct design walkthrough Screen designs Problems: Some of the problems related to design processes are: Traceability to the requirements. External consistency with the requirements. Internal consistency between components. Appropriateness of design methods and standards used. Detailed designs feasibility. Feasibility of operation and maintenance. 3.6. Design Standards Following standards are common for all type of software projects Identification of tasks, frames, units, and procedures Identification of common modules Identification of the programming language Definition of the control logic for every component Identification of access of database Evaluate operation and performance requirements Problems: Some of problems related to design standards are: Scalability Single standard are applied for both small and large scale projects Standards become very common when every type of project follow them 3.7. Architecture and design Documentation Documentation includes following mandatory documents: For Enterprise Architecture: Physical Design Document System Architecture Document Logical Design Document Infrastructure Component Placement Diagram Infrastructure Pattern Match For Waterfall Approach: Architecture Design System/Subsystem Design Application Architecture and Design Interface Design Database Design Screen/Report Design For Iterative Approach: Design Class Design Model Design Package Software Architecture Document Use-Case Realization Problems: Understandability Changeability Invisibility 3.8. Costs and Risks When we reduce risks on early stages of architecture and design then this will reduce cost on later phases. Resolving risks on later phases are very expensive and very difficult. Problems: From previous studies it is concluded that design for dependability and analysis is risky and costly due to following reasons: Effect of design on analysis and cost is not determined and understandable. During the course of the project whenever requirements change, the design will also change. This condition will make dependability of the system invalid. Top-down method is not good for those systems that are inherited from their previous systems. Survey Report Results We have designed a questionnaire containing questions related to challenges of architecture and design. Research Analysis This analysis is a comparison and research of most challenging activities during architecture and design phase. 4.1. Secure architecture and design According to our research 13 % Architect is using attack trees and threat models for designing a secure architecture. 26% are agreed on misuse cases are utilized during the design process. 40% Architects are using secure software design principles to mitigate potential weaknesses. Similarly 20% is agreed on that existing software is using known, good cryptographic methods/algorithm. Figure 3: Secure architecture and design 4.2. Most challenging task in design process According to our analysis most challenging activity is to create internal consistency within the module of a system in design process. 40% is agreed on this. Then maintenance and feasibility are challenging with the percentage of 26% and 20% respectively. Finally following standards are also difficult task and 13% are agreed on this. Figure 4: Most challenging task in design process 4.3. Critical deficiency in design standard According to our analysis the most critical deficiency in present design standard is flexibility and 40% people are agreed on this. 33% and 26% are agreed on global acceptance and scalability respectively is critical deficiencies. Figure 5: Critical deficiency in design standard 4.4. Challenges related to design documentation According to research in case of multiple stakeholders the most common problem related to documentation is changeability. 33% agreed on this. 26% agreed that understandability and flexibility are problems in documentation and 13% agreed that invisibility is a common deficiency. Figure 6: Challenges related to design documentation 4.5. Design tools technologies According to our analysis 33% projects use commercial tools because of their high reliability and efficiency. 26% and 20% organizations or people use open source tool and free tools respectively. These tools are available and easily accessible. Figure 7: Design tools technologies 4.6. Design methodologies Brainstorming is related to finding out root causes of a problem so 26% people are agreed that this process is most effective for requirement elicitation. 20% agreed on prototyping.10% are agreed on interview and questionnaire because they cover very limited domain of problem. 6% agreed on use cases and workshop because it required skills and cooperation between team members. Figure 8: Design methodologies 4.7. Problems with volatile nature of requirements According to survey 40% people agreed upon that we can reduce volatility by freezing or fixing requirements. 33% agreed that we can reduce this issue by reducing modifications. 26% agreed that we should ignore changes. Figure 9: Problems with volatile nature of requirements 4.8. Best software design method 33% people agreed that best method for software design is iterative method. Then 25%, 20%, 13% and 6% agreed that Agile method, Spiral method, waterfall method and evolutionary method respectively are well suited method. Figure 10: Best software design method V- Proposed Solution 5.1. Secure architecture and design For the purpose of reducing security risks designers should use secure software design principles. Designer should also focus on complex cryptographic techniques. 5.2. Most challenging task in design process Maintaining internal consistency within the module of a system is very difficult task. Designer can reduce this issue by making minimum dependency within the modules. Design whole system in small increments will also help to reduce this problem. In this way requirements will be traceable to their original resources. 5.3. Critical deficiency in design standard Architecture and design standards are most common thing for all type of software system. So flexibility is very challenging characteristic of standards and policies because most adopted standards are very common. If standards are according to system or product design then we can accommodate new changes. 5.4. Challenges related to design documentation Changeability or modifiability is very critical task in the design documentation. Requirements might be change in any stage of design phase. When requirement changes then design will be according to these modified requirements. 5.5. Design tools technologies According to analysis software development organizations should use commercial tools for design and architecture phase. Commercial tools are reliable, efficient and provide good performance. 5.6. Design methodologies Defects in requirement elicitation phase will create problem during design and architecture. We should use brainstorming method because this will reduce causes of problem occurrence. For large projects we should use prototyping. In prototyping an increment is delivered to customers and they will identify problems. 5.7. Problems with volatile nature of requirements Volatile nature of requirement causes problems during architecture and design phase. When we freeze or fix requirements before design and architecture phase then this will reduce problem related to volatility of requirement. 5.8. Best software design method This is a very challenging task to select a best method for development software. The selected method will also effect on the architecture and design phase of software. When we use iterative method then this will reduce problems in later phases because early increments will measure performance of systems design. VI- Conclusion and future work Software architecture and design is the core activity of any development cycle. In this paper we highlight some problems related to this phase. These problems are faced by every type of project. We also suggest some solution for this problem. When we follow these suggestions then we can reduce problems associated with different phases of architecture and design. In future we can implement these suggestions. Secondly there is also a possibility to highlight issue very deeply and related to each activity of architecture and design phases.

The Use of Performance Enhancing Drugs in Sports Essay -- Papers Stero

The Use of Performance Enhancing Drugs in Sports Is the use of performance-enhancing drugs in sports dangerous? To what degree do these drugs really enhance strength, size, training ability, and muscular performance? Not only are the answers to these questions still unclear, they are the subjects of deep controversy. In order to understand why we are confronted with the problem of performance-enhancing drug use in athletics today, we must look at the history of the development of anabolic steroids: a group of powerful synthetic chemical compounds that resemble the natural male sex hormones (Schwarzenneger 722). Anabolic steroids were first developed in the 1930's as a therapeutic drug to treat growth hormone replacement in deficient children, menopausal symptoms, impotence, and the retardation of the effects of aging by stimulating the rate of synthesis of protein molecules (Biology 121 Web Project 1). These steroids are a simulated testosterone hormone of the ?steroid hormone? group. The steroid hormones (which are also produced naturally) are synthesized from cholesterol. Most simply understood, the hormones function by passing from the blood stream into individual cells where they bind to a receptor and activate certain genes that cause the production of a protein, especially muscle proteins (et. al.). By the late 1940?s, bodybuilders had discovered the effects of testosterone as a means to stimulate muscle growth and to make themselves train with more intensity and aggression (Schwarzenneger 723). In 1953, the first truly synthetic anabolic steroid was developed, having a strength-building effect three to five times higher than testosterone. From bodybuilders to other athletes, steroid use quickly gaine... ... in Sports: Side Effects and Links.? Biology 121 Web Project/Anabolic Steroids. 9 Nov. 2000. 6 Nov. 2000 *http://www.people.virginia.edu/ abs9f/*. Meoreira de Araujo, Mario Cesar and Marcelo R. Facio. ?The Use of Anabolic/Androgenic Steroids by Athletes.? Use of Anabolic/Androgenic Steroids by Athletes MEDSTUDENTS-SPC. 9 Nov. 2000. 6 Nov. 2000 *http://www.medstudents.com.br/sport2.htm*. Schwarzenegger, Arnold. Encyclopedia of Modern Bodybuilding. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987. Vecsey, George. ?The Real Goal is Protecting the Children.? The New York Times 17 Sept. 2000, col. Sports of the Times: 1-3. 18 Sept. 2000 *http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?TS=969323324&RQT=309&CC=1&Dtp=1&Did=000000060561967&Mtd=1&Fmt=*.

Movements fighting for gay marriages Essay

The gay marriage debate has been persistent all over the world. It is a divisive political issue that brings out a lot of conflict. In USA for instance, movements fighting for gay marriages and their rights started as early as 1970’s. In the 1990’s it was a great political issue. The US federal government has not legalized gay marriages although some states like Massachusetts allow civil unions. Gay couples in US do not share same rights as straight couples since their marriages are not considered legitimate. Without marriage laws to protect their rights and benefits such couples face turmoil’s in their relationships. For instance automatic inheritance with death of a partner and making important decision for instance signing for emergency medical operations is not allowed. USA should follow Denmark, Netherlands and Canada and legalize gay marriages as a step forward to reducing hate crimes in society and thus promoting social order. Again, since most people who oppose it desires it do so on the basis of religious values the secular values and desires of the people are not considered. It should draw the line between the state and the church so that it accommodates all people in the society. Legalizing gay marriages will see the decline of HIV-AIDS transmission, as gay couples will increase their sense of responsibility for each other. Gay couples should not be denied significant rights like access to partners insurance or medical decision making, workers and compensation benefits. Benefits under annuity and retirement plans all which are important (http://marriageequity. com/facts/index. htm) By not legalizing gay marriage the law discriminates on the basis of sex since one’s ability to marriage depends on one’s sex. Cuba has recently started to involve and respect gay couples by redefining marriage to accommodate all people in society, as socialism should be all inclusive. (http://asp. usatoday. com/community/utils/idmap/13917955. story) Discrimination against gay couples will be abolished and their unions or marriages will be legalized It is ironic that US the world’s leading countries in democracy restricts gay marriages while it should be advocating and fighting for equality of all marriages. Gay marriages should be legalized and couples should be entitled to social security benefits and protection under federal pension laws. This would reduce instances where on death of a partner one cannot access the partner’s benefits. In case the family had children such benefits would be of great importance in maintaining the children’s welfare. Without legal protection gay couples face economic hardships that would have been eradicated had their marriage been legalized. South Africa and Belgium have also embraced it and marriages between same sex couples receive blessings. Today, most children are born out of wedlock to single parents; marriages end divorce and the family as a unit that provides the appropriate atmosphere for children to grow is loosing the grip. Children are still being brought up successfully outside the conceived perfect environment of the ‘family’. Gay marriages should be legalized so as allow partners make important decisions like medical based decisions. It will allow one make important decision that would save the partners life. Arguments in support of gay marriages The government’s purpose is to ensure that people’s rights are respected and that equality is maintained. It is therefore fair that gay marriages be legalized. If gay marriages are recognized gay couples would take the advantage of automatic inheritance in case of death of one partner. Without such gay couples inherit nothing of what they have worked hard for with their partner. Both straight and gay couples should have equal rights. (http://angelfire. com/home /leah/index. html) It is argued that gay relationships are not biologically natural as they cannot produce children of their own naturally. Culturally marriage is the institution that forms and upholds societal and social values and norms. Marriages ensure the continuity of society through procreation. It is therefore argued that society would suffer if gay marriages were to be legalized, as the continuam would be interrupted. Gay marriages should be legalized and efforts by the church t use religious values and imposing them on all people in society are uncalled for. There should be a clear distinction between the church and the state so that the state operates independently to accommodate all its citizens including the secular minded. (Snyder, 2006) Legalizing gay marriages will help create order and stability in society. When legalized the ‘main society’ will change their rigid perception that gay marriage is illegal and they will fit well with them. This will reduce gay-based hate crimes. The whole society will have social unity and discrimination against gay people will reduce. Unions to guide gay couple on how to raise their children can only be effective if gay marriages were legalized. This would counter the argument that gay couples are not good in bring up children. The unions can help create good parenthood through training. Arguments against gay marriages It is argued that legalizing gay marriages will be a step towards welcoming anti-social behaviour. Just as gay couple seek for attention and protection of their rights so would other absurd groups. Moral decadency is likely to occur in society. It would pave way for polygamy, incest and beastiality legalization all of which are not good for society. Traditionally marriage is between a man and a woman and not same sex parties. Gay marriages are therefore against the traditional perception of marriage and should be discouraged. Naturally marriage should be between two people of different sexes. Attraction between two people of same sex is considered unnatural gay marriages should therefore come to a halt. Marriage should be an institution between a man and a woman. And those gay marriages are immoral. God created a woman for the man and not a man for a man or woman for another. Gay couples choose to be gay and should not seek attention for the choices they have made in life. (Hohengarten, 1994) Parents pose as role models to their children. Gay parents are likely to bring up gay children and this will not be good for society. Supporters of this viewpoint argue that children need heterosexual parents to develop. This would be lacking in the gay families and consequently poor child development. The above reasons face much criticism. For instance linking procreation strongly with marriage undermines the other purposes of marriage. Procreation is not the only reason why people marry. Those who support gay marriages consider this point of view incompetent on the basis that there are sterile or barren couples or women at their post menopausal age who marry. The question posed is whether such marriages ought to be considered null since they won’t bear children. Again marriage could be for sexual satisfaction companionship and moral expression. (Strasser, 2002) Another problem with the argument that gay marriage is immoral is that who defines marriage and what is moral or immoral calls for another debate altogether. People have different perception about what is moral or immoral. Using religious values to support eradication of gay marriages by quoting the bible is inappropriate especially to a country that accommodates diverse religions. This is an insufficient approach as freedom of religion will be compromised. Why install your religious aspects to life on people who are for a secular approach to life? (http://atheism. about. com/6/9/007160. html) The argument that children need heterosexual parents to grow and develop is quite shallow. There are cases where their development is jeopardized despite them having heterosexual parents. Children need good nurturing, tender care and love from their parent’s to develop. Again gay parents are more likely to bring up straight children to spare them the pain of discrimination they have through. (Ross, 2002) Some gay people are not gay by choice but by birth. Argument that gay couples are naturally attracted to same sex partners outdoes the argument that gay marriages are unnatural. Nature should take its course and they should be allowed to marry those they are attracted to regardless of their sex. (Pierson et al, 2005) Arguments raised against legalizing gay marriages on the basis of their instability are uncalled for since the straight marriages have proved to be 7% more instable compared to gay marriages. In the USA only two states legalize gay marriages that are Massachusetts and Lowa though they call them civil unions. The federal government under the defense of Marriage Act of 1996 leaves the states to decide on which approach to handle its issues. Gay couples want their marriages to be legalized. This will eradicate the discrimination they face, as society is not comfortable with them and view them as ‘outcast’ with legalization gay couples can gain recognition. (Mello, 2004) The church is used by politicians for their own interests. Politicians are careful in discussing critical issues like whether to legalize or not legalize gay marriages. They are cautious not to offend the people who will determine their stay in government through voting. Conclusion. Gay couples have their rights to be happy. Happiness in marriage would be with the person one is attracted to and willing to be intimate with. Denying gay couples that happiness and trying to impose the person they should marry in terms of gender would be depriving them their rights. The government should ensure that the rights of all citizens are preserved. If gay marriages were legalized the HIV-AIDS prevalence would decline. This is because gay couples would increase their commitment towards their marriages. Forcing people to marry those they are not attracted to is a major reason for increased divorce rates. References: Austin Cline. 2007. Gay Marriage and church/state separation. Retrieved on 16th October 2007 from http://atheism. about. com/6/9/007160. html Leah Moore. 2001. Points in defense of gay marriages. Retrieved on 16th October 2007 from http://angelfire. com/home /leah/index. html USA Today. 2007. When it comes to gay rights, Is Cuba ahead of USA? Retrieved on 16th October 2007 from http://asp. usatoday. com/community/utils/idmap/13917955. story Mello, Michael. 2004. Legalizing gay marriages. University Press. Pierceson, Jason, Courts: 2005. Liberalism and Rights: Gay Law and Politics in the

The Issues Associated With Abortion - 2088 Words

Abortion The Problems associated with abortion can easily be categorized into five facets, The laws concerning abortion, contraceptives, human rights, philosophy and the start of life. Based on both statistics and claims associated with morality, a large amount of views regarding legal restriction on abortion has become crucial to most Americans. Advocacy groups define their stance on abortion by taking into consideration its constitutionality and the moral views that are shared among them, politicians however define the issue by party lines, generally liberals are â€Å"pro-choice† and conservatives are â€Å"pro-life.† The media defines the issue by taking into consideration the moral aspects, The media mostly presents to the nation the stances of various pro-life and pro-choice organizations with almost no statistical evidence from either side. The many different positions that can be taken on this issue can be divided by positions that are supported by statistic an d moral assumptions. However, the all these different viewpoint are largely focused on new laws tailored to the regulation of abortion. Abortions have been around for thousands of years. In the 1800’s abortions in the United States became illegal because of the unsafe position women were forced to endure due to poor medical knowledge. As medicine advanced and conditions became safer for women the act of abortion remained illegal leading women to rely on back ally abortions which were extremely unsafe. The AmericanShow MoreRelatedAbortion : A Negative Impact On Future Pregnancies984 Words   |  4 PagesAn abortion, also known as â€Å"termination of pregnancy† is when the female decides to take an action to end her pregnancy, which prevents the birth of a child. 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